A growing range of factors distinguish ethical from traditional fashion, including use of sweatshop-free labor, energy-efficient processes, alternative energy, and low-impact dyes in manufacturing. However, to the extent that fashion consumers make an effort to choose an ethical wardrobe, they usually do so by trying to pick an eco-friendly fabric. 

Three criteria are primarily used to distinguish the creation of eco-friendly from ordinary fabrics:  1) the use of fewer toxic chemicals, 2) the use of less land or water, and 3) the reduction of greenhouse gases.  Some fabrics perform better than others across all three of these criteria. 

1. Organic  Cotton

The cotton industry has mounted a public relations campaign promoting their product as “sustainable,” arguing that due to new technologies and farming methods, the industry has greatly reduced its use of energy, water, and toxic chemicals.  No-till farming reduces soil erosion, improved irrigation methods reduce water use, improved methods of pest management have reduced the use of pesticides, and most significantly, the use of genetically modified (GMO) cotton has reduced the use of land and toxic chemicals in cotton production by improving crop yields and resistance to boll worms.  A commonly cited statistic – that growing enough cotton to make a single cotton T-shirt requires a third of a pound of toxic chemicals (including pesticides, fertilizer, and defoliation chemicals) – is dated information from 1990, and is no longer accurate.

In spite of these changes, conventional cotton is not a good choice for the ethical consumer.  Here are a few statistics from recent reputable third-party sources cited at OrganicClothing.Blogs.com:

“A thorough and comprehensive study in 2006 by Kooistra, Termorshuizen and Pyburn of Wageningen University titled The Sustainability of Cotton reported that cotton is grown globally on about 2.4% of the world’s farm lands but consumes an estimated 11% of the agricultural chemical pesticides.”

“In May 2006, the U.S. Department of Agriculture released a report ‘Agricultural Chemical Usage 2005 Field Crops Summary’ for the major U.S. crops. For all U.S. corn crops, 2.124 pounds of pesticides were used per acre; for all oats, 0.166 pounds pesticides per acre; for all soybeans, 1.23 pounds of pesticides per acre; for cotton (upland), 4.486 pounds of pesticides per acre of cotton.”

Agricultural chemical runoff is poorly regulated in the U.S., often finding its way into smaller streams, then rivers and major estuaries (PBS Frontline, Poisoned Waters).  It has had a serious negative impact on marine life, and the impact of combinations of chemicals upon children in particular is poorly understood, but a matter of growing concern (Philip and Alice Shabecoff, Poisoned Profits:  The Toxic Assault on Our Children). 

If you are looking for truly sustainable cotton, go organic.  

2. Other Natural Fabrics

Other natural fibers, such as jute, kenaf, linen, ramie, wool, silk, and hemp typically require less pesticide and chemical use than conventionally grown cotton.  Organic varieties are also available.

A particularly good choice from an environmental standpoint, hemp “grows like a weed.”  It produces strong fibers, has antibacterial and antifungal properties, grows quickly, enriches the soil, and doesn't require fertilizers, pesticides or much water to grow – an ideal alternative for limiting both greenhouse gases and toxic chemicals.  Hemp plants suitable for fiber do not have sufficient concentrations of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) to serve as an illicit drug.  They have nonetheless been outlawed in the U.S., but the Oregon House passed a bill in June, 2009 legalizing industrial hemp.  Such change may contribute to increased supplies and lower costs for hemp clothing.  Moreover, as a domestic agricultural hemp industry develops in the U.S., shipping distance for hemp products sold in the U.S. will decrease, lowering the carbon footprint of these products. 

3. Synthetic fabrics  

Synthetic fabrics, such as polyesters, nylons, and acrylics are made from petrochemicals, the production of which creates nitrous oxide, a greenhouse gas far more potent than carbon dioxide in contributing to climate change.  However, some companies, notably Patagonia, manufacture clothing from recycled synthetics, such as PET (polyethylene terephthalate) polyester, which is made from recycled plastic bottles.

4. Regenerated Fabrics

A number of fibers are made from regenerated, renewable natural sources, namely plant cellulose or plant or animal proteins.  The regenerated fabrics are all biodegradable and require less pesticide than conventional cotton. 

Ingeo™, manufactured by Nature Works, is made from corn dextrose, and soy fabrics are made from soybean hulls.  Corn and soy crops are often grown from genetically modified seeds, and pesticides are generally used in their production. 

 I have seen claims that some Ingeo products are organic, but according to their own site,

“NatureWorks LLC purchases corn sugar (dextrose) to make PLA and the corn from which the dextrose is made is sourced from producers within a 30-mile radius of Blair, NE. The corn used to make the dextrose is a mixed stream of non-GMO and GMO corn grown in the area.” 

USDA certified organic products cannot be genetically engineered, so if all Ingeo is made by NatureWorks from a stream of non-GMO and GMO corn, it cannot be organic.

Fabrics made from plant cellulose require a regeneration process to transform natural sources into fiber.  For example, pine, spruce, hemlock, or residue cotton fibers can be transformed into rayon.

The process for transforming plant cellulose into regenerated fabrics is currently chemically intensive.  However, manufacturers of Tencel®/lyocell and Modal® claim to use a relatively environmentally friendly “closed loop” system for processing wood pulp into fabric in which 99.5% of the chemical solvents are recycled and reused.  Bamboo gets eco-points insofar as it is created from rapidly renewable plants that do not require pesticide or fertilizer to grow and that take larger amounts of carbon dioxide out of the air than other plants because of a rapid growth rate.  In a follow-up segment entitled “Is Bamboo Fabric Eco-Friendly?” we will take a closer look at the ethical issues raised by the growing bamboo fabric industry.

What About Carbon Footprint?

Calculating the carbon footprint of particular fabrics is complex because the entire life cycle of the fabric must be taken into account.  The amount and type of energy used in producing fiber and weaving it into fabric, how far it is transported and by what means, how long it lasts, how long it takes to dry, whether it is line dried, and how it is disposed of will all affect the carbon footprint of a particular fabric.  However, if we just consider carbon footprint of the production of alternative fibers, here are the numbers, according to a study done by the Stockholm Environment Institute on behalf of the BioRegional Development Group as reported by the O Ecotextiles blog.

Since there is no appreciable difference in the amount of energy used to weave different fibers into fabric, these differences in growing and producing fibers are what matter most in assessing the carbon footprint of the manufacture of each type of fabric.  The above numbers make it quite clear that natural, and particularly organic, fabrics produce a smaller carbon footprint.  Moreover, by relying on organic matter rather than chemical fertilizer for creating fertile soil, the farms that grow crops for organic fiber sequester more CO₂ within the soil rather than releasing it into the atmosphere.

Bottom Line

Natural fabrics are better than synthetic, and organic fabrics are better than conventional - both in terms of the impact of harmful chemicals released into the environment and in terms of carbon footprint.